What are the main challenges facing North Africa 15 years after the Arab springs?

North Africa faces a complex set of interconnected challenges, primarily centered on severe climate-induced water scarcity, high youth unemployment, and food insecurity. These are compounded by political instability in Libya, geopolitical tensions (notably between Algeria and Morocco), high debt levels, and the ongoing struggle to manage migration flows, all of which threaten long-term socioeconomic stability. Thus economic pressures, including high debt, unemployment, and youth discontent, are mounting alongside security risks from regional instability, such as in Libya and the Sahel.

Some of the key challenges facing North Africa

Authoritarianism: In North Africa authoritarianism has proven robust and it remains one of the world's most repressive regions, characterized by a resurgence of authoritarianism following the 2011 Arab Spring. Regimes across Egypt, Algeria, and Tunisia have solidified control through military-backed rule and a crackdown on civil society, limiting political rights and civil liberties. Regimes are increasingly using "digital authoritarianism," including internet shutdowns and digital surveillance, to suppress dissent. Tunisia, which once seemed to be moving towards democracy, has now transformed into a personalist though fragile authoritarianism.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13569775.2025.2509338#:~:text=ABSTRACT,or%20only%20case%2Dspecific%20evidence.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13569775.2025.2509338#:~:text=on%20the%20data.-,Background%2C%20literature%20review%2C%20and%20methodology,present%20itself%20in%20the%20region.

https://www.dw.com/en/tunisians-call-for-the-fall-of-authoritarian-regime/a-73420151

https://democratic-erosion.org/2026/02/14/stealth-authoritarianism-in-tunisia/

Climate Change and Environmental Stress: The region faces extreme heatwaves, desertification (with over three-quarters of the land affected), and critical water scarcity, which directly impact agriculture, food security, and livelihoods.

https://councilonstrategicrisks.org/2024/07/18/ecological-security-threats-in-north-africa-for-2040-water-scarcity-and-desertification/#:~:text=In%20addition%2C%20investing%20in%20drought,and%20enhance%20their%20technical%20capabilities.

Economic Instability and Unemployment: High poverty rates, high public debt (averaging over 60% of GDP), and high youth and female unemployment are significant, requiring urgent economic diversification.  For example, in some North African economies such as Algeria, Egypt, and Morocco, around 30% of young people with tertiary education are unemployed or inactive.

https://mastercardfdn.org/en/our-research/africa-youth-employment-outlook-2026/#:~:text=Despite%20Africa's%20economies%20shifting%20away,regarding%20domestic%20duties%20(13).

https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/striving-for-stability-what-lies-ahead-for-the-mena-region-in-2026-226216#:~:text=According%20to%20Youssef%20Cherif%2C%20Director%20of%20the,that%20may%20contribute%20to%20this%20include:%20*

Geopolitical and Security Issues:

The Libyan Crisis: Ongoing conflict and instability in Libya create security vacuums.

https://crisisresponse.iom.int/response/libya-crisis-response-plan-2025-2026

Regional Rivalries and Border Disputes: Tensions between Morocco and Algeria hinder regional integration and cooperation. The unresolved conflict in Western Sahara remains a major security concern.

https://dialogueinitiatives.org/a-step-back-for-western-sahara/

Social and Demographic Pressures: Rapid urban growth, a high population of young people needing jobs, and a large, elderly population placing a burden on healthcare systems.

https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/morocco-gen-z-protests-world-cup/#:~:text=Morocco's%20Youth%20Protesters%20Want%20Jobs,Photo/Mosa'ab%20Elshamy)

https://themilitant.com/2025/10/10/protests-erupt-in-morocco-over-jobs-health-care-and-a-future/

Food and Energy Dependence: The region relies heavily on food imports, making it vulnerable to global price shocks.

https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/grain-power-and-sovereignty-the-geopolitics-of-food-imports-in-north-africa-230593

Migration and Security: The region acts as a transit point for illegal immigration, contributing to complex, non-traditional security challenges. 

https://africacenter.org/spotlight/migration-trends-2025/

https://externalizingasylum.info/european-externalization-and-security-outsourcing-in-north-africa/#:~:text=In%20recent%20decades%2C%20North%20Africa,transparency%20and%20human%20rights%20abuses.

https://www.iai.it/en/publications/c03/north-africas-security-landscape-and-its-mediterranean-impact

These challenges are often amplified by governance deficiencies and the need for more inclusive, sustainable development strategies

https://decode39.com/13740/italys-intelligence-warns-of-an-expanding-arc-of-crises-across-the-wider-mediterranean/

https://carnegieendowment.org/mena-transitions/climate-change-challenges-in-north-africa

https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2026/01/26/growing-waste-crisis-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa-costs-us-7-2-billion-a-year-threatens-growth-and-tourism-new-wo#:~:text=Growing%20Waste%20Crisis%20in%20the,year%2C%20Threatens%20Growth%20and%20Tourism

https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/the-north-african-complex-regional-players-global-challenges-136940#:~:text=Unresolved%20crises%20in%20North%20Africa,developing%20concrete%20recommendations%20for%20policymakers.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/feb/12/italy-migration-giorgia-meloni-borders-naval-blockades-bill

Libya https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2026/mar/05/power-without-a-throne-how-khalifa-haftar-controls-libya-and-is-answerable-to-no-one

Tunisia https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/tunisia-needs-both-bread-and-freedom/

https://www.brookings.edu/articles/15-years-later-is-a-new-tunisian-revolution-possible/

Egypt https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/economy/2026/03/02/egypts-economy-in-crisis-as-financial-turmoil-grips-region/

https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2026/country-chapters/egypt

Algeria https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/economic-transformation-in-algeria-incentives-strategy-and-challenges/

Morocco https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/intertwined-destinies-how-and-why-to-redesign-eu-maghreb-relations-205748

The EU and the Maghreb https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/intertwined-destinies-how-and-why-to-redesign-eu-maghreb-relations-205748

https://www.ispionline.it/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ISPI-POLICY-PAPER-2025-EU-MAGHREB-RELATIONS-WEB_compr.pdf#:~:text=From%20an%20economic%20point%20of%20view%2C%20the,destined%20to%20play%20a%20crucial%20role%20in

https://trust-fund-for-africa.europa.eu/our-programmes/border-management-programme-maghreb-region-bmp-maghreb_en#:~:text=Border%20Management%20Programme%20for%20the%20Maghreb%20region%20(BMP%2DMaghreb),-Project&text=The%20BMP%20Maghreb%20programme%20aims,bona%20fide%20travellers%20and%20goods.

Italy and the Maghreb https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/italys-mattei-plan-geoeconomic-projection-into-africa/#:~:text=The%20domestic%20rationale%20behind%20the,stability%20in%20Algeria%20and%20Libya.

https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/mattei-plan-impact/#:~:text=The%20Mattei%20Plan%20has%20achieved%20some%20successes:,as%20the%20EU%20plays%20a%20larger%20role**

https://north-africa.com/europes-new-migration-rules-shift-pressure-south-to-north-africa/

https://reliefweb.int/report/libya/quarterly-mixed-migration-update-north-africa-quarter-2-2025#:~:text=Since%20early%20April%202025%2C%20large,crossings%2C%20including%20self%2Dsmuggling.&text=Italy%20approved%20a%20%E2%82%AC20,are%20rarely%20voluntary%20in%20practice.&text=France%20and%20Morocco%20announced%20the,return%20of%20irregular%20Moroccan%20nationals.&text=The%20European%20Commission%20proposed%20designating,also%20formalise%20wider%20deportation%20agreements.&text=Despite%20some%20signs%20of%20a,all%20recorded%20expulsions%20in%202024.

 

The challenges facing Sub-Saharan Africa

https://credendo.com/en/knowledge-hub/main-challenges-facing-sub-saharan-africa-2026-and-beyond

Sub-Saharan Africa faces major interconnected challenges, driven by intense poverty—with over 40% of the population living below the poverty line—and severe malnutrition affecting hundreds of millions. Key issues include rapid population growth, extreme vulnerability to climate change (droughts/floods), high debt distress, armed conflicts, critical infrastructure gaps, high unemployment, corruption and poor governance which hinder economic growth and cause further chronic food insecurity, leaving much of the population in poverty and limiting development. And in a vicious circle these in turn drive further conflict, unemployment and economic and social instability, often leading to displacement and migration. This, as we have seen in recent years, impacts Italy and Europe directly.

Thus, some of the main challenges facing Sub-Saharan Africa are:

Poverty and Economic Instability: While forecasts indicate the percentage of people in extreme poverty is slowly declining, rapid population growth means that the absolute number of people living in extreme poverty remains high, often cited in the range of 400 to over 460 million, depending on the exact definition of the poverty threshold used ($1.90, $2.15, or $3.00). Moreover, 22 of the 24 "low human development" nation are located here in Sub-Saharan Africa. High debt distress and poor infrastructure limit economic growth. This is sometimes described as a systemic “fragility trap”, impacting more than 460 million since, as well as those in poverty, many more live near the poverty line. While other regions have successfully moved millions out of deprivation, Sub–Saharan Africa now accounts for more than 75% of the world’s extreme poor. In 2026, the World Bank projects that extreme poverty remains highly concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, with the regional poverty rate projected to be around 43-44%, impacting nearly 7 out of 10 of the world's poor. While economic growth is expected to recover to 4.4% in 2026-27, high inflation, rapid population growth (" the youth bulge"), and low formal job creation (only 3 million formal jobs for 12 million youth annually) are hindering significant poverty reduction

https://mohacafrica.org/poverty-rate-in-africa/#:~:text=We%20also%20see%20a%20rising,like%20inflation%20or%20health%20crises.

https://www.worldbank.org/ext/en/region/afr#:~:text=Expected%20per%20capita%20growth%20of,SSF

https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/africa-pulse#:~:text=The%20October%202025%20edition%20of,of%20productivity%20and%20job%20creation.

Malnutrition and Hunger: As of early 2026, the food security situation in Africa has deteriorated further, with over 307 million people across the continent affected by undernourishment, with the situation worsening due to food inflationand conflict. Malnutrition is a primary cause of mortality, with over 90% of malnutrition-related deaths involving underweight or stunted children. Lack of infrastructure means that food sometimes cannot be transported easily to those areas that need it.

https://www.who.int/news/item/28-07-2025-global-hunger-declines-but-rises-in-africa-and-western-asia-un-report#:~:text=Unfortunately%2C%20this%20positive%20trend%20contrasts,World%20Health%20Organization%20(WHO).

https://www.worldvision.org/hunger-news-stories/africa-hunger-famine-facts

https://www.unicef.org/esa/press-releases/13-million-children-malnourished-eastern-and-southern-africa-2025#:~:text=According%20to%20UNICEF%2C%20almost%2013%20million%20children,*%20Funding%20cuts%20to%20life%2Dsaving%20nutrition%20assistance

Climate Change and Agriculture: The region is highly vulnerable to climate shocks, with nine of the ten most vulnerable countries located here, resulting in water scarcity, severe drought and flooding that cripple agricultural production. These unstable weather patterns have decimated harvests and destabilized food security in countries like Zimbabwe and Malawi. In 2026, climate change in Africa is aggressively reshaping agriculture through erratic rainfall and, increased droughts, with Southern Africa seeing up to 20% reduced maize yields. An effective response will require adaptation and the adoptio of different crops and farming techniques. These will require agricultural education for small-scale farmers and government funding.

https://yourcommonwealth.org/climate-change/changing-climate-and-the-vulnerability-of-subsistence-farmers-in-sub-saharan-africa-despite-improved-weather-forecasting/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CNowadays%2C%20early%20December%20humidity%20deceives,floods%20are%20likely%20to%20strike.

https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20260214/au-theme-year-2026-call-action-safe-water-and-sanitation

https://www.cabi.org/news-article/new-partnerships-to-transform-agricultural-education-and-food-security-in-africa/

https://agrifocusafrica.com/2026/02/02/climate-variability-reshapes-planting-decisions-for-african-farmers-in-2026/#:~:text=Climate%20Variability%20Reshapes%20Planting%20Decisions%20for%20African%20Farmers%20in%202026,-By%20Brandon%20Moss&text=Across%20Africa%2C%20farmers%20are%20entering,defining%20priority%20for%20African%20agriculture.

Economic and Fiscal Crisis: Around 20 countries are in or at high risk of debt distress, with rising debt service costs severely limiting development budgets. Key countries in distress or at high risk include Ghana, Zambia, Ethiopia, Chad, Congo, Mozambique, and Sudan. High inflation (over 10%) on food and energy prices exacerbates poverty. However, in 2025 economic growth remained resilient at 4.1%, with a modest pickup to 4.4% in 2026. This increases government revenue bur for poor countries this does not meet and levels of government spending and investment needed to transform their population’s economic situation.

https://africarenewal.un.org/en/magazine/africas-debt-dilemma-turning-crisis-reform#:~:text=G20%20debt%20framework,but%20awaits%20a%20final%20agreement

Infrastructure Deficits: In fact, significant shortages in transportation, roads electricity, and telecommunications hinder industrial productivity and market access and progress towards economic security. The African Development Bank (AfDB) estimates that between $130–$170 billion per year is required to fund infrastructure development. Lack of progress is partly due to poor regulatory frameworks and red tape but mainly to a lack of funds. The EU’s Global Gateway and Chinese investment could improve the situation but projects and funding will depend on political stability and the business environment (corruption and bureaucracy).

https://www.uneca.org/stories/perspectives-the-long-winding-road-defining-africa%E2%80%99s-infrastructure-development

Health and Infrastructure: Weak healthcare systems due to a lack of funding, transport systems and staff coupled with diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria, impact both life expectancy and productivity. High poverty levels, reliance on familial support, and limited access to these healthcare systems create, with high fertility and mortality rates in some areas, create further social strain. Official Development Assistance to Africa has meanwhile declined by 70% over past four years.

https://www.thereporterethiopia.com/48977/#:~:text=Current%20health%20spending%20in%20many,chain%20disruptions%2C%20and%20geopolitical%20shocks.

Rapid Population Growth: High birth rates thus put overwhelming pressure on the limited financial resources of Africa’s poorest countries, on their limited infrastructure, and the ability of parents to provide, contributing to malnutrition and poverty. Recent cuts in international funding for aid programs worsen the situation.

https://www.afd.fr/en/news/sub-saharan-africa-faces-persistent-demographic-challenges

Unemployment and Demographic Shifts: Thus a rapidly growing, young population faces limited access to education and a scarcity of formal jobs, with only 24% of new workers finding wage-paying positions. Sub-Saharan Africa's unemployment rate, estimated around 5.8%–5.9% in 2024–2025, masks a deeper crisis of underemployment, with over 70% of youth in precarious or informal jobs. So while overall rates are relatively low, youth unemployment is higher driven by a rapidly growing population that will double by 2050.

https://www.ecofinagency.com/news-services/2710-49873-africa-s-youth-jobless-rate-beats-europe-s-but-most-jobs-remain-precarious#:~:text=EU%20faces%20higher%20jobless%20rates%20but%20stronger%20labor%20protections&text=According%20to%20Eurostat%2C%20the%20EU's,formal%20contracts%20and%20social%20protection.

Conflict and Governance Issues: Ongoing armed conflicts and political instability, particularly in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, and the DRC, cause displacement, food insecurity, and political instability and hinder development. At the same time corruption and poor governance also limit investment in health and education and effective resource management.

https://www.imf.org/en/publications/imf-notes/issues/2025/04/25/pushed-to-the-brink-fragility-and-conflict-in-sub-saharan-africa-566187

https://www.crisisgroup.org/brf/africa/b209-seven-peace-and-security-priorities-africa-2026

https://eastleighvoice.co.ke/world/290810/sub-saharan-africa-scores-lowest-in-2025-global-corruption-index-says-transparency-international

Cuts in development assistence and aid to Sub-Saharan Africa: Significant cuts in US and international aid to Sub-Saharan Africa in 2026, stemming from 2025 policy shifts, are projected to cause severe humanitarian crises, including increased hunger, conflict, and potential declines in health services. Sub-Saharan Africa faces up to 28% less aid compared to previous years. Reductions are heavily impacting HIV/AIDS programs, with a projected 50% cut in HIV/AIDS funding.

https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/cuts-in-official-development-assistance_8c530629-en/full-report.html

https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/hivaids/us-cuts-hiv-programs-sub-saharan-africa-pose-global-risk-experts-say#:~:text=An%20estimated%2010.3%20million%20children,the%20world%2C%20HIV%20experts%20warn.

The EU Global Gateway and Sub-Saharan Africa: The EU Global Gateway aims to mobilize up to €150 billion in public and private investments for Sub-Saharan Africa between 2021 and 2027 to support green energy, digital infrastructure, health, and education. In 2025 alone, EIB Global (part of the initiative) deployed €3.1 billion in Africa. As of early 2026, the strategy remains focused on sustainable investments, with 138 of 264 flagship projects dedicated to the continent.

https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/policies/global-gateway/initiatives-sub-saharan-africa/eu-africa-global-gateway-investment-package_en#:~:text=%E2%82%AC150%20billion%20in%20investments

https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/countries/sub-saharan-africa_en

The Mattei Plan in 2026: In February 2026, as the Mattei Plan entered its third year, Addis Ababa hosted the second Italy-Africa Summit. The Global Gateway-Mattei Plan Summit on 20 June 2025 was perhaps the spotlight event of the year. Hosted in Rome, the Summit was a further attempt by the government to shape the European discourse on Africa. In terms of policy, internationalisation activities continued, following up on the premises set out during the Italian-led G7, positioning the country at the centre of major global initiatives such as the Lobito Corridor, an infrastructural project linking the Lobito port on the Angolan coast with Zambia’s Copperbelt regions, which are particularly rich in mineral resources and rare earths.

https://www.iai.it/it/pubblicazioni/c05/mattei-plan-after-addis-ababa-italy-africa-summit

See this video of Meloni

https://www.google.com/search?q=the+mattei+plan+2026+where+are+we%3F+meloni+video&sca_esv=8bd1f507c7587a60&biw=1093&bih=479&ei=3kmpaYSSHabAi-gP2__U4A0&ved=0ahUKEwiE-ZubtoiTAxUm4AIHHds_FdwQ4dUDCBE&uact=5&oq=the+mattei+plan+2026+where+are+we%3F+meloni+video&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiL3RoZSBtYXR0ZWkgcGxhbiAyMDI2IHdoZXJlIGFyZSB3ZT8gbWVsb25pIHZpZGVvMgUQIRigATIFECEYoAEyBRAhGKABSI5CUOMJWMg8cAF4AJABAJgB2wGgAaILqgEFOC40LjG4AQPIAQD4AQGYAg2gAtoMwgIEECEYFcICBRAhGJ8FwgIIEAAYgAQYogTCAgUQABjvBZgDAIgGAZIHBjAuMTIuMaAH1iuyBwYwLjEyLjG4B9oMwgcFMi02LjfIB2iACAA&sclient=gws-wiz-serp#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:8081d318,vid:1oKJrsrN53U,st:0

China and Sub-Saharan Africa: In 2026, Chinese investment in Sub-Saharan Africa is accelerating, focusing on critical minerals, digital infrastructure (5G, AI), and green energy to support both Chinese tech demands and African modernization. Major projects in 2026 include extensive mining operations and technology transfers, alongside increased economic engagement in South Africa following new 2026 trade agreements. However, worryingly China's role as a leading financier to developing nations has ‌shifted over the past decade, with new loans to poorer countries falling sharply while debt repayments continue to rise, according to analysis released by ONE Data. This debt-trap means China has shifted from a net provider to a net receiver.

https://africacenter.org/spotlight/africa-china-relations-2026/#:~:text=Growing%20numbers%20of%20African%20countries,and%20establishing%20new%20supply%20chains.

https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-africas-trade-minister-signs-economic-partnership-agreement-china-visit-2026-02-06/#:~:text=The%20agreement%20will%20be%20followed,Chinese%20market%2C%22%20Tau%20said.

https://chinaglobalsouth.com/2026/01/22/chinese-lending-africa-decline-rmb-2024/

https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/african-nations-now-send-more-money-china-than-they-receive-new-loans-2026-01-27/#:~:text=%22The%20fact%20%E2%80%8Dthat%20there's%20less,less%20on%20external%20%E2%81%A0financing.

https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/african-nations-now-send-more-money-china-than-they-receive-new-loans-2026-01-27/#:~:text=%22The%20fact%20%E2%80%8Dthat%20there's%20less,less%20on%20external%20%E2%81%A0financing.

Other sources

https://credendo.com/en/knowledge-hub/main-challenges-facing-sub-saharan-africa-2026-and-beyond

https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/125431/1/MPRA_paper_125431.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2049080122015291#:~:text=world%20%5B6%5D.-,Several%20factors%20contribute%20to%20the%20high%20prevalence%20of%20malnutrition%20in,needs%2C%20including%20purchasing%20quality%20food.

https://www.imf.org/en/blogs/articles/2025/11/18/sub-saharan-africa-steady-growth-amid-fiscal-challenges

https://www.afd.fr/en/news/sub-saharan-africa-faces-persistent-demographic-challenges#:~:text=Challenges%20ahead:%20youth%20employment%20and,potential%20due%20to%20climate%20disruption.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09465-2#:~:text=This%20is%20owing%20to%20urban,and%20other%20less%2Durbanized%20regions.

Brexit 10 years later and the prospects for a post-Brexit UK-EU reset

Current – https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/critical-thinking-ten-years-after-the-uk-brexit-referendum-ushered-in-the-age-of-self-destruction-time-to-call-a-halt/

https://www.cer.eu/publications/archive/policy-brief/2026/eu-uk-relations-will-2026-be-year-reset-reset

https://www.britishchambers.org.uk/news/2026/03/made-in-europe-plan-could-upend-eu-reset/

https://institutdelors.eu/en/publications/from-hard-brexit-to-chosen-european-alignment/#:~:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20no%20longer,UK%20and%20internal%20market%20standards.

https://www.eunews.it/en/2026/02/25/eu-and-uk-sign-competition-cooperation-agreement-ribera-in-uncertain-times-collaboration-is-the-best-tool/

https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2026/jan/31/uk-and-eu-to-explore-renewed-talks-on-defence-cooperation

Costs of Brexit

https://econofact.org/the-economic-costs-of-brexit-on-the-uk

https://www.bestforbritain.org/brexit_impact

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjDOminpL3g

https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cdrynjz1glpo a good summary of the effects of Brexit up to Jan. 2025

See the other sections below

Timeline

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/post-brexit-agreements/timeline-post-brexit-agreements/

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/post-brexit-agreements/

https://www.niassembly.gov.uk/assembly-business/brexit-and-beyond/timeline-and-key-documents/

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/feb/03/observer-view-list-of-brexit-wins-is-in-short-and-feeble

https://www.essex.ac.uk/research/showcase/why-britain-really-voted-to-leave-the-european-union

Moves towards a UK-EU reset and the realistic prospects

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2026/02/03/eu-and-uk-to-ramp-up-talks-on-closer-ties-10-years-after-brexit-referendum

https://www.thelocal.com/20260214/europe-uk-seek-closer-ties-a-decade-after-brexit

https://observer.co.uk/news/national/article/ten-years-after-brexit-were-talking-about-getting-closer-to-europe-again

https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/01/brexit-bridges-and-barriers-where-next-for-eu-uk-relations?lang=en

https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c2dxzyg9y3eo

2024

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/dec/10/brexit-labour-voters-eu-trade-regulations-keir-starmer

https://uk.news.yahoo.com/eu-makes-three-major-demands-115519338.html

https://www.bruegel.org/policy-brief/trade-policy-framework-european-union-united-kingdom-reset

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/08/26/the-eu-uk-reset-what-are-the-prospects-for-closer-cooperation

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/20/eu-youth-mobility-proposal-uk

https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cvg3pxz4334o

https://www.politico.eu/article/keir-starmer-brexit-uk-politics-borders-product-saftey-bill-brussels-eu-policy-supply-chains-backlash/

https://www.cer.eu/publications/archive/essay/2024/where-might-uk-eu-relations-be-under-labour-government

https://yougov.co.uk/politics/articles/50317-labour-does-not-have-a-mandate-to-take-britain-back-into-the-eu-says-public

https://ukandeu.ac.uk/much-of-the-substance-of-labours-uk-eu-reset-will-tricky-to-secure/

https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/uk-pm-starmer-heads-brussels-first-conversation-eu-reset-2024-10-01/

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/10/2/britains-starmer-in-brussels-for-talks-on-eu-reset

https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/dove-sta-andando-la-brexit-159720

the UK economy

https://www.cnbc.com/2024/02/14/brexit-has-sliced-5percent-off-uk-economic-growth-goldman-sachs-says.html

https://www.esteri.it/en/politica-estera-e-cooperazione-allo-sviluppo/politica_europea/dossier/brexit/

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/eu-relations-with-the-united-kingdom/post-brexit-agreements/

https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/01/12/brexit-here-is-how-much-it-has-cost-for-british-people

https://www.newslettereuropean.eu/the-impact-of-brexit-on-migrants-and-workers-in-the-eu/

and trade

https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/17/economy/brexit-stifling-britain-trade-europe/index.html

https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/comment/government-brexit-border-risks

https://www.eunews.it/en/2024/02/22/uk-eu-border-chaos-risk-lack-of-control-facilities-at-ports-and-stations/

polling

https://www.statista.com/statistics/987347/brexit-opinion-poll/

Northern Ireland

https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgj9ly7pdmo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Framework

https://www.eunews.it/2024/02/05/referendum-irlanda-del-nord-regno-unito/

https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9736/

https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9548/

migration

https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/eu-migration-to-and-from-the-uk/

https://www.gov.uk/guidance/eu-entryexit-system#:~:text=The%20European%20Union's%20(EU)%20Entry,operation%20expected%20from%20April%202026.

https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2026/feb/14/uk-migration-negative-economy

https://www.eunews.it/2024/02/23/frontex-regno-unito-accordo-migrazione/

https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/longterminternationalmigrationprovisional/yearendingjune2023

and generally

https://www.eunews.it/2023/09/07/regno-unito-brexit-ue-copernicus-horizon/

https://www.eunews.it/2023/09/18/brexit-leader-laburista-starmer-ue/

https://www.eunews.it/2023/09/07/regno-unito-brexit-ue-copernicus-horizon/

https://www.eunews.it/2023/07/04/ue-regno-unito-assemblea-parlamenti/

https://www.eunews.it/2023/02/27/ue-regno-unito-brexit-irlanda-del-nord/

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/12/29/brexit-draft-deal-first-of-many-hurdles-to-a-smooth-exit

https://www.eunews.it/2022/12/22/brexit-regno-unito-scioperi-economia/

https://www.eunews.it/2022/11/15/regno-unito-mobilita-militare-pesco/

https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/01/12/brexit-here-is-how-much-it-has-cost-for-british-people

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/12/29/brexit-draft-deal-first-of-many-hurdles-to-a-smooth-exit

https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/longterminternationalmigrationprovisional/yearendingjune2023#:~:text=1.-,Main%20points,)%20and%20British%20(84%2C000).

https://www.newslettereuropean.eu/the-impact-of-brexit-on-migrants-and-workers-in-the-eu/

https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9548/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LY2JaT28iIYhttps://www.eunews.it/2022/11/15/regno-unito-mobilita-militare-pesco/

https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/01/12/brexit-here-is-how-much-it-has-cost-for-british-people

https://www.cnbc.com/2024/02/14/brexit-has-sliced-5percent-off-uk-economic-growth-goldman-sachs-says.html

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/12/29/brexit-draft-deal-first-of-many-hurdles-to-a-smooth-exit

https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/longterminternationalmigrationprovisional/yearendingjune2023#:~:text=1.-,Main%20points,)%20and%20British%20(84%2C000).

https://www.newslettereuropean.eu/the-impact-of-brexit-on-migrants-and-workers-in-the-eu/

https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9548/

https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/britain-retain-substantial-number-eu-laws-until-least-2026-2024-01-22/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKdqDcgVVI4

the effect on the EU

https://www.ilpost.it/2019/01/31/brexit-ue-forte/

https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-united-kingdom/new-normal/consequences-brexit_en

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union#:~:text=The%20Brexit%2Ftrade%20agreement%20led,subject%20to%20additional%20import%20duties.

https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/12/29/brexit-draft-deal-first-of-many-hurdles-to-a-smooth-exit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union#:~:text=Brexit%20resulted%20in%20the%20EU,increase%20over%20the%20same%20period.

https://www.lemonde.fr/en/opinion/article/2024/02/01/european-elections-four-years-later-brexit-stands-as-a-warning-to-europe_6484896_23.html

https://it.euronews.com/2016/07/05/stoltenberg-cooperazione-nato-ue-ancora-piu-forte-dopo-brexit

The EU and China

 You could quote this from the EU:

The EU sees China as a partner for cooperation, an economic competitor and a systemic rival. However, EU-China relations have become increasingly complex due to a growing number of irritants. China has become less open to the world and more repressive at home, while taking a more assertive posture abroad, resorting to economic coercion, boycotts of European goods, and export controls on critical raw materials.

https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/eu-china-relations-factsheet_en#:~:text=The%20EU%20sees%20China%20as,controls%20on%20critical%20raw%20materials.

I don’t agree with all of the following article but it makes a strong case.

https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-should-europe-position-itself-for-systemic-rivalry-with-china/#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20when%20the%20European,rivalry%E2%80%9D%20was%20a%20watershed%20moment