English for Diplomacy

Introduction – this title concerns two separate but connected topics, nuclear armaments and the development of nuclear power for peaceful purposes. It is also related to the dangers posed by other Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). Nuclear arms – some information

Which countries have nuclear weapons?

https://www.statista.com/chart/8301/the-countries-holding-the-worlds-nuclear-arsenal/

https://www.icanw.org/nuclear_arsenals

https://www.statista.com/chart/8301/the-countries-holding-the-worlds-nuclear-arsenal/

https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat

https://www.ucs.org/nuclear-weapons/worldwide#:~:text=Nine%20countries%20possess%20nuclear%20weapons,to%20humanity%20these%20weapons%20represent.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d558tMKjvgc

There are currently 9 nuclear powers – the US (since 1945), the Russian Federation (1949), the UK (1952), France (1960), China (1964), Israel (1967?), which now also has a submarine with nuclear arms and thus a second-strike capability (2003), India (1974), Pakistan (declared 1998, probably developed from the 1970s) and North Korea (2003). Apartheid South Africa had them and then eliminated them (1982-94). Canada deploys US missiles but has no independent control of them. Germany, Italy, Holland and Belgium and Turkey have US nuclear bases and are part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy, which means they take common decisions with the US on nuclear weapons policy and maintain technical equipment required for the use of nuclear weapons.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_sharing

https://www.icanw.org/italy

Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine had them after the break-up of the Soviet Union but returned them to the Russians almost immediately.
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) came into force in 1970. There was also the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1998). And there is the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW 2017) but as of September 2025, only 74 states have ratified or acceded to the treaty.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons

There are treaties concerning other potential or existing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). These include the banning of Chemical weapons (1992), Biological weapons (1971) and Weapons in Outer Space (1967).
The Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is responsible for monitoring the development of nuclear power for peaceful purposes (the production of energy for domestic and industrial consumption) and ensuring that nuclear materials and equipment are safe and not diverted from legitimate peaceful purposes to military purposes. (There is a similar Agency in the Hague for chemical products and the potential for producing chemical weapons.) There is an ongoing dispute with Iran about whether it has developed nuclear power for purely peaceful purposes or intends to develop nuclear weapons. There was a nuclear deal between the UN and Iran (July 2015) and the lifting of sanctions, but the US withdrew from the deal (May 2018) and reimposed sanctions. It bombed Itan’faccilities in the summer of 2025 and as of February 2026 is in negotiation with Iran. Here is the background

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-iran-nuclear-deal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action#:~:text=The%20United%20States%20withdrew%20from,nuclear%20deal's%20economic%20provisions%20null.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action

https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2021/mar/03/sanctions-5-trumps-maximum-pressure-targets

There were then calls for the revival of the deal or a renegotiated agreement.

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2022-10/news/delay-risks-effort-restore-iran-deal

https://www.politico.com/news/2024/04/18/joe-biden-iran-sanctions-israel-00153007

https://www.stimson.org/2024/the-outlook-for-iran-nuclear-negotiations/

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2024-10/news/iranian-president-opens-door-new-nuclear-talks

https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9870/

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions-against-iran/

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions-against-iran/#nuclear-proliferation

for the current situation (2026) see the notes on Iran at the top of this post

Nuclear weapons and the current dangers of nuclear proliferation and an escalation of a conflict into nuclear war

With rising tensions between the US and Russia, the US withdrew from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 2019 saying that Russia had not complied with it. The New START Treaty (on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms) was extended in 2021 but Russia’s suspended its participation in the treaty in 2023 and later withdrew from the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. The New START agreement expired in February 2026 with growing fears of a new nuclear arms race.

https://www.armscontrol.org/pressroom/2026-02/joint-statement-high-ranking-former-officials-and-nuclear-experts-across-globe

Nuclear weapons are clearly expensive to develop, build, maintain and update. How dangerous do they make the world? Are they weapons that are likely to be used? Hopefully not, if we mean whether states really intend to use them one day, although the tensions and nuclear rhetoric between the US and Russia recently is alarming.

https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20240927-vladimir-putin-nuclear-weapons-declaration-more-than-an-empty-threat-ukraine-nato-us-war

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2024-06/focus/russias-war-and-specter-nuclear-conflict

https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jun/17/row-as-nato-chief-hints-at-talks-to-increase-availability-of-nuclear-weapons

With the expiry of the New START Treaty there is the real danger of increased competition and a new arms race between the US and Russia (and China) regarding the development of new weapons technologies and deployment of tactical (battlefield) nuclear weapons (and the temptation to use them). There is also growing concern that various other countries may try to develop weapons. Would an Iran with nuclear weapons end up in a nuclear war with Israel? There is, in the case of India and Pakistan (as in the case of the US and USSR during the Cuban crisis), the danger of escalation from a conventional conflict to a nuclear war in the Kashmir region. Moreover, there is always the danger of an accident due to a technological or human error, and the threat of a decision taken by a madman or madmen. In addition, poorer countries developing nuclear weapons may spend too little on maintenance and security systems (e.g. not funding the 2-key launch system or Russia's security failures during and after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and Soviet Union, 1989-91). Other experts claim that a new arms race combined with the abandoning of international treaties and greater automation and digital complexity of nuclear-arsenals makes the world less and less secure.

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2026/feb/08/nuclear-war-risk-rising-global-peace

https://www.icanw.org/catastrophic_harm

https://armscontrolcenter.org/are-nuclear-armed-nations-entering-a-new-arms-race-in-2024-experts-weigh-in/

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-u-s-s-plans-to-modernize-nuclear-weapons-are-dangerous-and-unnecessary/

https://www.economist.com/international/2023/08/29/a-new-nuclear-arms-race-looms

So there is a good argument for trying to abolish them completely.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Abolish_Nuclear_Weapons

or at least relauch nuclear arms control talks

https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/russia-us-discussed-nuclear-arms-agreed-talks-start-129910686

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2024-04/focus/breaking-impasse-disarmament-part-one

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2024-05/focus/breaking-impasse-nuclear-disarmament-part-two

https://www.armscontrol.org/sites/default/files/files/documents/Breaking%20the%20Impasse%20on%20Disarmament%20and%20Implementing%20Article%20VI%20Obligations.pdf

However, an attack by a nuclear power on another nuclear power, or the ally of a nuclear power, would be suicidal (the Mutually Assured Destruction deterrence doctrine of the Cold War). For example, an attack by a future Iran, hypothetically in possession of nuclear weapons, could destroy Israel (but probably most of the Palestinians too along with their longed-for homeland) but Israel would retaliate and destroy Iran. An attack on a non-nuclear power (e.g. North Korea on South Korea). Would likely lead to international isolation, if not a coordinated counter-attack from the global community or other nuclear powers.

However, another real danger is that nuclear weapons or materials could fall into the hands of terrorists or be targeted by terrorist attacks (in Pakistan, for instance) or conventional attacks.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Terrorism_Convention

There is also the question of what would happen to the nuclear weapons in the event of a civil war in a state which has nuclear arms. This is a real danger in Pakistan and was one of the major international concerns during the break-up of the Soviet Union. The development of nuclear weapons is also related to the development of nuclear delivery systems (planes, short-range, long-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles – ICBMs) and the international community is involved in monitoring this situation, particularly regarding developments in this sector in Iran and North Korea.

Some arguments in favour of keeping nuclear arms (the Devil’s advocate!)

(1) Fear of these weapons, more than the existence of the UN, have prevented a Third World War for more than 80 years. There have been many conventional conflicts, but none of them have been global. Without nuclear arms the US and USSR might have gone to war at some point during the Cold War. So, their elimination might actually lead to more wars and make a general global conflict more likely. They have only been used once, by the US on Japan, to end a war, not to start one. This seems a strong argument.

(2) No conventional war since 1945 has ever actually escalated into a nuclear war.

(3) Reductions in or the elimination of these weapons must be coordinated with strict controls and on-site checks to ensure the ban on other types of WMDs, or countries will invest in those alternative weapons and the real danger to the world may be increased, e.g. a race to develop and build biological or chemical weapons.

(4) If major powers reduce the number of nuclear weapons they have, then they will probably massively increase their spending on conventional weapons to compensate for this. Some historians argue that World War I demonstrated that a build-up of conventional weapons can lead to growing tensions and war.

(5) Nuclear weapons guarantee a country against nuclear attack. So far this has been true.

(6) Nuclear weapons guarantee a country and a country’s allies against conventional attacks or invasion. This is not true. Argentina invaded the Falklands, confident that Britain would not respond with nuclear weapons. North Vietnam and the Viet Cong defeated the South Vietnamese government and US forces. Afghan rebels fought and defeated the Russians and the Russian-backed Afghan government, and more recently the US and its allies also lost their war in Afghanistan and the US-backed Afghan government fell. Neither the Vietnamese, nor the Afghans rebels were intimidated by the strength of the US and USSR as nuclear powers. Ukraine also seems much more worried about Russia’s conventional forces than a nuclear strike.

(7) Some supporters of banning nuclear weapons argue that they can used be effectively to intimidate or threaten a non-nuclear country. This does not really seem to be true. Only North Korea has tried to use this tactic, against South Korea, and largely without success. The US, the USSR (Russia today), France, Britain, China, India, Pakistan – none of them has ever done this directly. Israel does not admit publicly that it has nuclear weapons and has fought a series of conventional wars with its neighbours. It has never threatened the use of nuclear weapons. It has threatened conventional bombing of Iranian nuclear research and development facilities if the Iranians continue with their program. Even President Putin’s government has so far refrained from direct threats, raising Russia’s nuclear readiness status as part of its defensive stance and underlining the risks of the war in Ukraine escalating and becoming a nuclear conflict, using nuclear rhetoric and setting red-lines but not directly threatening a nuclear first-strike attack on Ukraine or other European countries to halt the war.

https://esthinktank.com/2025/03/03/russias-shifting-red-lines-nuclear-brinkmanship-strategic-ambiguity-and-the-credibility-of-deterrence-in-ukraine/

However, this kind of brinkmanship is clearly dangerous.

(8) Prestige – This is a much-quoted but probably mistaken idea. A country or government may, of course, believe that it will acquire status and prestige by developing nuclear weapons but this is probably an illusion as the following considerations suggest. Have North Korea and Pakistan really acquired international prestige or become regional leaders? Don’t Germany, Japan and Brazil have considerably more prestige because of their economic importance? Did China and India gain prestige internationally when they acquired nuclear weapons or when their economies expanded to their current levels? Does the prestige of the EU in international relations depend on French nuclear weapons (or NATO forces and US weapons) or on its economic importance as a single developed market, democratic traditions and cultural influence? Do the Arabs respect Israel more because it has nuclear weapons?

(9) Nuclear technology is old, no longer complex (with the right fissile material you could built one at a US university physics department) and you cannot turn the clock backwards. You cannot get rid of knowledge. So, should we try to eliminate them completely, or try to reduce their numbers to a minimum, improve their safety, prevent their proliferation where possible, but accept that they are here to stay?

http://www.boell.de/intlpolitics/security/foreign-affairs-security-global-zero-nuclear-weapons-conference-8755.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation
http://www.globalissues.org/issue/67/nuclear-weapons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treaty
http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/1997/00/00_babst_consequences.php
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons

https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/09/565582-treaty-banning-nuclear-weapons-opens-signature-un#.Wmt-XLynFdg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons

2017 (as of September 2025, only 74 states have ratified or acceded to the treaty)

Nuclear technology for the peaceful production of energy

What is nuclear power?

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/nuclear-energy/

https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-is-nuclear-energy-the-science-of-nuclear-power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power

The first commercial nuclear power stations started operation in the 1950s.

Nuclear power generation is an established part of the world's electricity mix providing about 10% of world electricity from about 440 power reactors. It is especially suitable for meeting large-scale, continuous electricity demand where reliability and predictability are vital – hence ideally matched to increasing urbanization worldwide.

Almost all reports on future energy supply from major organizations suggest an increasing role for nuclear power as an environmentally benign way of producing reliable electricity on a large scale.

Nuclear provides about one-quarter of the world’s low-carbon (green) electricity.

Nuclear is the world's second largest source of low-carbon power (after hydroelectric).

Over 50 countries utilize nuclear energy in about 220 research reactors. In addition to research, these reactors are used for the production of medical and industrial isotopes, as well as for training.

From:

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/world-energy-needs-and-nuclear-power#:~:text=Nuclear%20power%20for%20electricity%20in,the%20Outlook%20for%20Nuclear%20Power.

In response to climate change, many nations and the IAEA see nuclear energy as a ‘reliable’ option and a way to achieve climate targets, at least in the short term.

https://www.ans.org/news/article-6513/new-edition-of-iaeas-iclimate-change-and-nuclear-powermi-available/

https://www.voanews.com/a/nations-pledge-to-boost-nuclear-power-to-fight-climate-change/7537385.html

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/01/nuclear-energy-transistion-climate-change/

https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/reactors.html#tab=iso

https://www.ans.org/news/article-6513/new-edition-of-iaeas-iclimate-change-and-nuclear-powermi-available/

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/plans-for-new-reactors-worldwide

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/24/nuclear-power-output-expected-to-break-global-records-in-2025

Current use:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/nuclear/nuclear-power-plants.php#:~:text=Nuclear%20power%20plants%20have%20generated,power%20plants%20in%2028%20states.

And by country

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles 2026

France has 57 nuclear reactors, producing 70% of its electrical power, the highest percentage in the world. (2026)

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_France

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx
Nuclear power was used in Germany from the 1960s until it was phased out in April 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Germany

https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/qa-germanys-nuclear-exit-one-year-after

The USA has 94 nuclear reactors, producing 18% of its electrical power (accounting for about 30% of worldwide generation of nuclear electricity). (2026)

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/usa-nuclear-power#:~:text=The%20USA%20is%20the%20world's,20%2C017%20MWe

https://www.npr.org/2026/01/28/nx-s1-5677187/nuclear-safety-rules-rewritten-trump

Japan’s first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in mid-1966, and nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. This came under review following the 2011 Fukushima accident but has been confirmed.

Up until 2011, Japan was generating some 30% of electricity from its reactors and this was expected to increase to at least 40% by 2017. The plan is now for at least 20% by 2030, from a depleted fleet.

15 reactors have restarted. 10 reactors are currently in the process of restart approval.

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident

https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidente_nucleare_di_Fukushima_Dai-ichi

The UK generates about 15% of its electrical power, using 9 nuclear reactors with 2 under construction. (2026)

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom

For the history and current situation in Italy see:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Italy

China has 58 nuclear reactors with 33 more under construction, producing about 4% of its electrical power (2025).

https://cnpp.iaea.org/public/countries/CN/profile/highlights

https://world-nuclear.org/nuclear-reactor-database/summary/China

South Korea has 26 nuclear reactors with 2 more under construction, producing 32% of its electrical power (2026).

https://world-nuclear.org/nuclear-reactor-database/summary/South%20Korea

https://world-nuclear.org/our-association/publications/world-nuclear-outlook-report/south-korea---world-nuclear-outlook-report#:~:text=South%20Korea%20has%2026%20operable,of%20SMR%20capacity%20by%202038.

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/south-korea

The Russian Federation currently has 34 operable reactors, producing 19% of its electrical power, and 6 under construction (2026).

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-power

https://world-nuclear.org/nuclear-reactor-database/summary/Russia

The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred in April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine, which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities in Moscow. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive material into the atmosphere. It is widely considered to have been the worst nuclear power plant accident in history. Highly radioactive fallout entered and contaminated the atmosphere and drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe (large parts of Germany were covered with radioactive contamination). From 1986 to 2000, 350,400 people were evacuated and resettled from the most severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. According to official post-Soviet data about 60% of the fallout landed in Belarus. The accident raised concerns about the safety of Russian nuclear technology, as well as the dangers of nuclear power plant engineering in general and human error. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and health care costs of the Chernobyl accident. According to a report by the International Atomic Energy Agency estimates of the number of deaths potentially resulting from the accident vary enormously: Thirty one deaths are directly attributed to the accident, all among the reactor staff and emergency workers. An UNSCEAR report places the total confirmed deaths from radiation at 64 as of 2008. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the death toll could reach 4,000 civilian deaths, a figure which does not include military clean-up worker casualties. The Union of Concerned Scientists estimate that for the broader population there will be 50,000 excess cancer cases resulting in 25,000 excess cancer deaths. The 2006 TORCH report predicted 30,000 to 60,000 cancer deaths as a result of Chernobyl fallout. A Greenpeace report puts this figure at 200,000 or more. A Russian publication, Chernobyl, concludes that 985,000 premature cancer deaths occurred worldwide between 1986 and 2004 as a result of radioactive contamination from Chernobyl.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster

As of January 2018, 1.8 million people in Ukraine, including 377,589 children, had the status of victims of the disaster.

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190725-will-we-ever-know-chernobyls-true-death-toll

https://inis.iaea.org/records/ws43c-mzs52#:~:text=If%20the%20fatalities%20of%20liquidators,to%2050%2C000%20to%2090%2C000%20people.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_due_to_the_Chernobyl_disaster

To return to the events following the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima Daiichi I Nuclear Power Plant in Japan on March 11, 2011, these demonstrate that even with great advances in the safety of nuclear technology, exceptional events (in this case an earthquake and a tsunami) make 100% safety impossible and raise questions about the industry’s confident claims to operate within acceptable margins of safety. Japan was torn between its fears of another accident and desire to decommission existing nuclear power plants and its needs to produce ‘clean energy’ under the Paris Climate Change agreement and thus to allow restarts at sites which are currently closed to increase the ‘nuclear’ share of electricity production back up to 20%.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_Nuclear_Power_Plant
http://abcnews.go.com/topics/news/fukushima-nuclear-power-plant.htm
http://fukushimaupdate.com/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Japan

Some countries had already decided not to use or to phase out nuclear power and there is an ongoing debate about the pros and cons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out

Emerging nuclear energy countries (updated October2023). However, there are about 30 countries which are considering, planning or starting nuclear power programs

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/emerging-nuclear-energy-countries.aspx
The production of nuclear energy produces radioactive waste materials that need to be stored on a long-term basis (for decades). The French nuclear power industry’s claims that a very high percentage of this material can be recycled is widely disputed. Moreover, this is not what is happening in most countries at the moment. So this material also represents a threat to life. For example, some experts argue that in the US alone, 80 years after the Manhattan project began, there are now 94 nuclear reactors and 90,000 metric tons of nuclear waste (the product of both the commercial and defence nuclear reactors) at 100 sites in 35 states in temporary(!) storage facilities with no permanent storage arrangements. The U.S. has no permanent nuclear waste disposal plan. So this is another hot debate.

https://energyathaas.wordpress.com/2026/01/12/this-nuclear-renaissance-has-a-waste-management-problem/#:~:text=Across%20the%20country%2C%20more%20than,permanent%20nuclear%20waste%20disposal%20plan

https://earth.org/nuclear-waste-recycling-realistic-pursuit-or-delusion/#:~:text=But%20there%20is%20a%20problem,%2C%20economic%20viability%2C%20and%20safety.

https://www.gao.gov/nuclear-waste-disposal

https://podcasts.apple.com/at/podcast/theres-90-000-tons-of-nuclear-waste-in-the-us-how/id1842715051?i=1000738940275

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-waste/radioactive-waste-management#:~:text=Nuclear%20waste%20is%20neither%20particularly,disposal%20is%20the%20best%20option.

https://www.orano.group/en/unpacking-nuclear/all-about-radioactive-waste-in-france#:~:text=Following%20recycling%20operations%2C%2096%25%20of,La%20Hague%20site%2C%20pending%20disposal.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/supreme-court-nuclear-waste-storage#:~:text=The%20nuclear%20waste%20impasse,of%20Michigan%20in%20Ann%20Arbor.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nuclear-waste-is-piling-up-does-the-u-s-have-a-plan/#:~:text=The%20U.S.%2C%20which%20led%20the,appropriations%20and%20restrictive%20budgetary%20rules.

Those who argue that nuclear energy is cheap often ignore the fact that any eventual solution that is found for the storage or disposal of this waste is liable to be expensive and needs to included in calculating the real cost of producing such energy.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel.aspx

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste_management

http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2009/05/18/18climatewire-is-the-solution-to-the-us-nuclear-waste-prob-12208.html?pagewanted=all
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ieer-french-style-nuclear-reprocessing-will-not-solve-us-nuclear-waste-problems-90233522.html
http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/nuclear/nuclear-wasteland
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/blog/2011/apr/04/fear-nuclear-power-fukushima-risks

https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/economics-reprocessing-vs-direct-disposal-spent-nuclear-fuel#:~:text=At%20a%20uranium%20price%20of,plutonium%20fuels%20in%20existing%20reactors.

https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/french-nuclear-waste-project-cost-up-42-billion-says-agency-2025-05-12/#:~:text=Reuters%20Plus-,French%20nuclear%20waste%20project%20to%20cost%20up%20to%20$42%20billion,waste%20agency%2C%20known%20as%20Andra.

https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/economic-aspects/economics-of-nuclear-power

The argument for maintaining the existing power plants and building new ones, at least in the short term, is that fossil fuel alternatives are limited and global prices always remain volatile subject to many factors, while alternative clean renewable energy sources are still not sufficiently developed and cannot offer adequate supplies at the moment. Opponents argue that renewable, green energy sources are becoming competitive and that, anyway, this argument only underlines the need for greater investment in renewables in order to produce a technological revolution and lower costs dramatically. Supporters of nuclear power also argue that the two major accidents which happened were in Soviet Russia, using poor technology and under a government system that was well-known for its inefficiency, and in Japan, in an area where a nuclear power plant should never have been built because of seismic risks. Moreover, advocates of nuclear energy claim that more people die, directly or indirectly, in the coal-mining industry and oil industry than die in the nuclear industry and statistics from the International Energy Agency seem to confirm this:

https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20928053-600-fossil-fuels-are-far-deadlier-than-nuclear-power/
However, there are several arguments for closing nuclear power stations. First, there is the danger of an accident like the ones described above. Moreover, in Europe the EU (and other European nations (e.g. Switzerland, the UK) clearly needs to adopt a common policy since the effects of an accident in France could easily spread to Italy, Spain, the UK, Belgium, Switzerland and Germany. Secondly, closing them will force countries to invest heavily and rapidly in alternative renewable energy sources. Thirdly, they are potentially vulnerable targets for terrorists, e.g. an attack on a nuclear facility could lead to a nuclear disaster (e.g. by using a plane), or a raid to acquire nuclear materials or waste (or simply the purchase of these materials from corrupt officials) for the construction of a ‘dirty’ (or ‘suitcase’) bomb for a terrorist attack, using conventional explosives to release radioactive material into the atmosphere). The fewer the nuclear plants the less nuclear material there is to protect.
http://www.nci.org/nci-nt.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism#:~:text=Nuclear%20terrorism%20could%20include%3A,submarine%2C%20plane%2C%20or%20base.

https://www.iaea.org/topics/security-of-nuclear-and-other-radioactive-material

These nuclear power plants can also become targets (even unintended ones) in conflict zones like Ukraine.

https://press.un.org/en/2024/ga12645.doc.htm

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is the international organization which is responsible for promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and trying to prevent its development and use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization in 1957 but reports to both the UN General Assembly and Security Council. However, the IAEA faces growing challenges, given that there isn’t always a simple clear line between developing nuclear energy for purely peaceful purposes and nuclear energy also for military purposes until the final stages (‘nuclear latency’). So, preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons (and moving towards nuclear disarmament) in a world in which nuclear energy is widely used for energy production is becoming an extremely difficult task.

Moreover developments in AI and particularly AI for cyber-attacks and sabotage complicates the situation even further and increase the risks to security.

https://www.iaea.org/events/cybercon26#:~:text=The%20rapid%20pace%20of%20digital,for%20people%20and%20the%20environment.

https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/update-339-iaea-director-general-statement-on-situation-in-ukraine#:~:text=Situation%20in%20Ukraine-,Update%20339%20%E2%80%93%20IAEA%20Director%20General%20Statement%20on%20Situation%20in%20Ukraine,%2C%E2%80%9D%20Director%20General%20Grossi%20said.

Key 2026 Nuclear Security Challenges & The Civilian-Military Nexus

Ukraine War and Nuclear Safety: The ongoing war in Ukraine remains the most significant threat to nuclear safety, with IAEA teams in early 2026 reporting "significant" impact on plant operations due to military activity damaging the electrical grid. This situation highlights how civilian infrastructure can become directly embroiled in military conflict, forcing the IAEA to operate in a high-stakes, gray-zone environment.

Nuclear Latency and Proliferation: In 2026, the global non-proliferation regime is facing pressure, with concerns that more countries might move closer to weaponization. The civilian-military distinction is often blurred by "nuclear latency"—the ability of a state to leverage its advanced civil nuclear program (using fuel and byproducts) to develop nuclear weapons. Iran remains a central focus for the IAEA regarding compliance with, or potential exit from, the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Security: As over 80 SMR designs move toward deployment, the IAEA is focusing on securing their digital technologies. The need to exchange information in these systems creates potential pathways for cybercriminals, requiring robust, integrated cybersecurity to prevent malicious acts.

Cyber Warfare and Dual-Use Technology: The IAEA's CyberCon26 conference (May 2026) highlights the intersection of cybersecurity and safety. New technologies like AI and advanced digital instrumentation, while improving performance, create risks if military, intelligence, or terrorist actors target these systems.

International Legal Frameworks: The IAEA is reinforcing that attacking nuclear facilities, which are for peaceful purposes, violates international humanitarian law. In 2026, the Agency is continuing to update its security recommendations for transporting radioactive material to ensure the "thin line" is not exploited by malicious actors.

IAEA Response and Strategy for 2026
The IAEA is adapting to these challenges by focusing on:

Enhanced Safeguards: Intensifying inspections to ensure civilian nuclear material is not diverted.

Digital Security Standards: Releasing guidelines for securing advanced digital instrumentation in nuclear plants.

Increased Vigilance: Strengthening technical capabilities to monitor potential military uses of nuclear technology, especially in regions with high geopolitical instability.

Addressing Nuclear Security: Establishing programs to ensure the "trustworthiness" of personnel and systems in the nuclear sector.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_latency#:~:text=Nuclear%20latency%20or%20a%20nuclear,Nuclear%20Complex%20in%20Arak%2C%20Iran.

https://digitalcommons.ndu.edu/wmd-proceedings/7/#:~:text=Description,the%20global%20nuclear%20nonproliferation%20regime.

https://www.justsecurity.org/130607/emerging-trends-nuclear-2026/#:~:text=At%20the%20same%20time%2C%20the,circumscribe%20the%20technologies%20under%20consideration.

https://www.justsecurity.org/129480/risk-nuclear-proliferation-2026/#:~:text=With%20the%20risks%20of%20new,technical%20barriers%20to%20proliferation%20erode.

Nuclear Weapons 1945-2023

The following estimates from the Federation of American Scientists, September 2020.

The US and the Russian Federation made large reductions in their nuclear arsenals through a negotiation process which began with the START 1 treaty in 1991 (also START 2, 1993, START 3 negotiations and SORT, 2003) and say they are committed to continuing this process (the New START treaty was ratified in January 2011). From a high of 65,000 active weapons in 1985, there were estimated to be some 4,120 active nuclear warheads and some 14,930 total nuclear warheads in the world in January 2021.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/264435/number-of-nuclear-warheads-worldwide/
The US reduced from 32,000 (active and stockpiled) at the highest point in 1966 to 1,800 (active warheads) and 5, 550 (total inventory including reserves and stockpiles)
The Russian Federation reduced from 45,000 (active and stockpiled by the USSR) at the highest point in 1988 to 1,950 (active) and 6,255(total inventory).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country#/media/File:US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg

https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/

Current situation

For the latest estimated global nuclear warheads inventories 2026 and most up-to-date charts and data, go to:

https://fas.org/initiative/status-world-nuclear-forces/

https://www.statista.com/statistics/264435/number-of-nuclear-warheads-worldwide/

Moreover, the US is in the process of developing new nuclear weapons systems and China and Russia are probably doing the same (with the danger that other countries will follow), putting the world at risk of a new nuclear arms race.

https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2025/nuclear-risks-grow-new-arms-race-looms-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now

https://www.nbcnews.com/world/russia/nuclear-arms-race-start-treaty-expires-russia-china-trump-putin-xi-rcna257012

https://www.cfr.org/articles/nukes-without-limits-a-new-era-after-the-end-of-new-start

https://nuclearnetwork.csis.org/three-truths-about-the-end-of-new-start-and-what-it-means-for-strategic-competition/

More background to the current situation (optional reading)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon
http://newsoffice.mit.edu/2014/rose-gottenmoeller-america-russia-nuclear-security-1024

http://www.icanw.org/the-facts/nuclear-arsenals/

So globally, the number of nuclear weapons declined significantly, but the reduction process has halted. The United States, Russia, and the United Kingdom reduced their overall warhead inventories, France and Israel have relatively stable inventories, while China, Pakistan, India, and North Korea have increased their warhead inventories. Moreover, all the nuclear weapon states continue to modernize their remaining nuclear forces, developing and adding new types and appear committed to retaining nuclear weapons for the indefinite future. In particular, the US, Russia and China are rapidly updating both their weapons and delivery systems

The exact number and type of nuclear weapons in a country’s possession is a closely held national secret. Yet the degree of secrecy varies considerably from country to count. Between 2010 and 2018, the United States disclosed its total stockpile size, but in 2019 the Trump administration stopped that practice. Biden disclosed the figures again during his term. Despite such limitations, however, publicly available information, careful analysis of historical records, and occasional leaks make it possible to make best estimates about the size and composition of the national nuclear weapon stockpiles.

“Since 1991, the United States [claims that it] has destroyed about 90 percent of its non-strategic nuclear weapons and devalued them in its military posture. However, the Obama administration reaffirmed the importance of retaining some non-strategic nuclear weapons to extend a nuclear deterrent to allies. And the U.S. Congress has made further reductions in U.S. nuclear weapons conditioned on reducing the “disparity” in Russian non-strategic nuclear forces.

Russia says it has destroyed 75 percent of its Cold War stockpile of non-strategic nuclear weapons, but insists that at least some of the remaining weapons are needed to counter NATO’s conventional superiority and to defend its border with China. Following a meeting of the NATO-Russia Council on April 19, 2012, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated: “Unlike Russian non-strategic nuclear weapons, U.S. weapons are deployed outside the country,” and added that “before talks on the matter could begin, the positions of both sides should be considered on an equal basis.”

from: http://www.fas.org/_docs/Non_Strategic_Nuclear_Weapons.pdf

The US withdrew from the ABM Treaty (1972) in 2002 (which banned the development of a missile defence system).

http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/13/international/bush-pulls-out-of-abm-treaty-putin-calls-move-a-mistake.html

At the November 2010 NATO Summit in Lisbon, NATO’s leaders decided to develop a ballistic missile defence (BMD) capability to pursue its core task of collective defence and specifically against an attack with missiles. Despite NATO’s initial attempts to reach agreement with the Russian Federation, Russia has made its opposition to the plan clear. (Moreover, many technical experts doubt that such a system will ever be 100% effective, which is the only level of safety worth having if the missiles have nuclear warheads.) This and the situation in Ukraine raised tensions with Russia and ended the prospects for further cooperation between the US and Russia on nuclear arms reductions.

http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2017/7/31/nato-missile-defense-systems-strive-for-interoperability

https://armscontrol.org/act/2013-11/missile-defense-against-iran-without-threatening-russia https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_176392.htm https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2016-05/news/romania-missile-defense-site-activated

In August 2019 under President Donald Trump the US withdrew from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty claiming that Russia had violated it. The deal banned ground-launched medium-range missiles, with a range of between 500 and 5,500km (310-3,400 miles. e.g. Moscow to Paris). There were concerns that without a new understanding between the US and Russia we would see the unravelling of all the progress made in the last 25 years and a new nuclear arms race.

Without agreement on an extension the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New Start) would have expired on 5 February 2021. In the same month the Biden administration agreed with Russia to extend the New START Treaty for 5 years and to undertake comprehensive arms control and reduction talks. This was greeted by the international community with enthusiasm.

https://www.armscontrol.org/blog/2021-02/us-russian-nuclear-arms-control-watch

https://www.state.gov/on-the-extension-of-the-new-start-treaty-with-the-russian-federation/ https://ru.usembassy.gov/new-start-treaty-mythbusters/

https://www.dw.com/en/us-russia-agree-to-extend-new-start-nuclear-arms-treaty/a-56354318

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-05/focus/back-brink-next-steps-biden-putin

https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/06/22/biden-putin-russia-arms-control-new-start/

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-12/news-briefs/russia-us-adhere-new-start-limits

but the treaty would need to be expanded to include new technologies to be effective

https://sgp.fas.org/crs/nuke/IN11520.pdf

https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/01/25/extending-new-start-should-be-just-beginning-pub-83699

Worsening relations between the US, NATO and the Russian Federation (due to events in Ukraine, sanctions, the NATO missile defense system and the US suspension of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty) made further negotiations and progress on further reductions more difficult and more unlikely. In fact, arms control talks with Russia were suspended by the Biden administration on 25 February 2022 in response to the invasion of Ukraine.

https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/25/biden-russia-arms-control-talks-ukraine-invasion/

And in February 2023 Russia suspended the New START Treaty.

https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2023-03/news/russia-suspends-new-start

Former US President Obama had talked about the need for an international commitment to eliminate nuclear arms completely. Realistically, despite the the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (2017), this seems unlikely to happen in the near future, without the prospect of some kind of world governing authority accepted by all. Some experts even doubt the advisability of such a development but nearly all agree that greater nuclear arms control and further reductions are vital.

https://www.armscontrol.org/reports/2024/nuclear-disarmament-summits-proposal-rejuvenating-progress-toward-world-free-nuclear

https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/role-nuclear-weapons-grows-geopolitical-relations-deteriorate-new-sipri-yearbook-out-now

https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/09/1154951

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_Option
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power

Conclusions

So, there is general consensus within the global community that the number and types of nuclear weapons need to be reduced and further proliferation avoided. Moreever, some experts argue that with the increased reliance on AI in nuclear defence systems the catastrophic risks of a computer error or computer-related human error are leading us towards the nightmare scenario of Dr Strangelove. In January 2021, the NATO Secretary General underlined the urgency of the situation and the need for a new treaty on nuclear arms control to take the place of New START. However, that Treaty has now expired.

There is also real doubts about the use and safety of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but general agreement on the need for:

1) More integrated strategies for monitoring and responding to the recruitment of trained nuclear scientists and engineers by suspicious parties, and against the purchase or acquisition of fissile materials, nuclear waste materials, nuclear know-how and technical expertise (Pakistani scientists in North Korea and Iran), non- nuclear components of a nuclear bomb or advanced delivery systems by such parties on the black market.

http://www.nci.org/nci-nt.htm

2) Increased international transparency, on-site controls, information-sharing and cooperation in this field. Given the current atmosphere of growing geopolitical tensions, there will be a need for security service surveillance by NATO, the EU and their allies of the national nuclear programs of countries considered unreliable or potential threats.

3) Improvements in the security provided to and at nuclear plants and better and more regular tests on the safety of nuclear facilities.

4) Increased security relating to the use, or potential use, of AI in this field.

5) Better and permanent arrangements for the disposal or recycling or storage of nuclear waste.

giovedì 12 febbraio 2026

Confindustria

Writing a memorandum (memo)

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-write-memo/

How to Write a Memo in 8 Steps, With Examples | Grammarly

mercoledì 11 febbraio 2026

The prospects for 2026

How should the international community respond to the challenges posed by the spread of nuclear technology?